1850's/Twilight Period in Apache/Pindah Relations

The 1850’s was a Twilight Period in Apache-American relations as each side attempted to access the respective strengths of the other. The Apache-American (Pindah) struggle generated different responses as each side attempted to feel out the other! Some American policy-makers called for extinction- humanely if possible and if not, no quarter should be shown. Others called for civilizing the red man by transforming them into farmers, ranchers, miners. Indian Agent, Sylvester Mowrey, however insisted that reservations/ acculturalization will devastate the tribes in the long term by exposing them to alcohol, disease and prostitution. Reservations were administratively efficient from the government’s perspective but culturally divisive for the various bands many of whom were historical enemies. Crowding all the Bands together in a specific place made it easier to play one group off against another. Making the reservations even worse was that they often were established on barren land where disease and death were rampant! The other issue to peace which made these reservations unattractive was the inadequacy of food and provision for the Apaches! Their poor locations made the goal of transforming the Apaches into ranchers, herders, farmers as advocated by Indian Agent, Michael Steck, and a mockery. Ranching and farming was contrary to the Apache warrior culture, a value deeply embedded in their psychic, and part of their own sense of independence and freedom. The conundrum facing Washington was that the historical Apache- Mexican War, along with the Apaches raiding economy, may it impossible for the military to prevent Apache incursions south of the Border despite the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. In 1851, the military under Colonel Edwin Sumner decided to build a network of Forts in Apacheria as a way to stem the flow of raids into Mexico. The most strategic point was Fort Webster built at present day San Lorenzo/Santa Luca in the heart of Mangas Coloradas Chihennes’ land. But it was later removed to the Rio Grande and renamed Fort Thorn. Sumner decided to remove military garrisons from towns the size of Santa Fe, and establish them in strategic frontier points in Apacheria as a way to better control hostile Apache movement, and to better pursue their elusive enemy in search and destroy missions.  Cavalry patrols were to cris-cross the territory as a way of neutralizing Apache raids, providing protection for teamsters/miners, and settler’s wagon trains passing through or settling in the southwest.

Throughout the 50’s Mangas Coloradas and his protégé Cochise sought to weave a middle path away from an outright war against the Pindah as they intuitively sensed that they would not win against the technologically savvy Americans. Their need to conduct winter raids into Mexico for supplies and manpower had to be done in such a fashion as not to alienate the Americans. The technological superiority of the Pindah was made quite evident to the two leaders in 1857 when Colonel Benjamin Louis Eulalie Bonneville launched an expedition of 900 soldiers against the White Mountain Western Apaches and the Bedonkohes Chiricahuas in the Gila Mountains for their incursions along the Rio Grande. It was a rather complicated strategy involving a three prong encirclement operation, which although having limited success, because of the Apaches ability to vanish into the landscape, nevertheless left a deep impression on Mangas and Cochise with American firepower, and ease in mobilizing large numbers of troops when compared to the relative primitive weapons available to the Apaches, and their much smaller population base. Mangas Coloradas’ Chihennes were more vulnerable to western impact than Cochise’s Chiricahuas largely because of geography. In 1856, Michael Steck reported that Mangas’ band consisted of approximately a 1000 persons with many more being children and women than men which constituted only 20 % of those counted. (Cf, Sweeney, MC, p.331.) Mangus Coloradas Chihennes were reduced to 70 men/450 women & children; Bedonkohes of Geronimo, 125 men /500 women; Chokonens of Cochise, 125 warriors/500 women/children.  

Cochise and Mangas often sought each other’s counsel about how to handle the Americans/Mexicans. It was quite common for Mangas’ Mimbreno’s to join with Cochise’s Chokonens during the winter months to plot their joint raids into Sonora or Chihuahua. Both realized that Anglos tolerated the continuing Apache raids into Mexico as it spared them from Apache depredations, and confirm the Gringo racist prejudice that “Browns” were inherently weak/cowardly! They also played their own game of divide and rule, playing the Americans off against the Mexicans, as well as the states of Sonora and Chihuahua. Mangas at the time of Bonneville was negotiating with Janos, whereas Cochise was doing the same with Ignacio Pesqueria governor of Sonora at Fronteras. A factor motivating Mexicans to parley/trade with the Apaches was their fear that the Americans might ally with their historical enemies to seize northern Mexico for United States. Apache /Mexican relations historically followed a pattern of war, followed by negotiations/peace, and then war with excesses on each side. Apaches needed Mexicans for food, livestock, horses, mules, equipment, guns and markets. Mexican commercial symbiosis required trading with Apaches for gold, contraband goods and horses. Complicating trading arrangements was the Apaches habit of taking young Mexican boys on raiding parties, and the Mexican ruse of enticing them with whiskey in order to get their trade goods for next to nothing or to scalp them for money! Making survival more difficult for the Apaches was that the Mexicans in Sonora/Chihuahua had adopted a scorch earth policy of pursuing Apache raiders relentlessly, using Indian scouts from tribes that loathed the Apache, hiring mercenaries scalp or bounty hunters, and using trickery and bio/chemical warfare against their enemies. Maria Zuloaga of Janos an inveterate Apache hater and dominant Jefe in northwestern Chihuahua, who controlled the Corralitos’ mines, was fearful of an Anglo/Apache rapprochement in which Apaches would receive Americans arms for booty, invited Cochise and Mangus to parley in 1858 under a white flag, but instead they were feted poison food and drink leading to the death of 60 Chihennes/Chokonens. This alleged peace meeting with Janos leaders was a ployed used by the Mexicans to poison their Apache guest with tampered whiskey! This betrayal led Mangas to return to his beloved Santa Lucia to work out a more permanent agreement with John Steck who wrote about the poisoning event, Nov. 21, 1857, to James L. Collins, Superintendant of Indian Affairs, in New Mexico. Similar response occurred in Sonora under Ignacio Pesqueria, future Governor, following his decisive defeat in 1851 by the Apaches at Pozo Hediondo under Mangus Coloradas he too became militaristic and ruthless seeing in guns and treachery the only recourse to dealing with the Apaches.