Steck and Apache Solution/Mexican Treachery

From 1852 -1863, Dr. Michael Steck of Pennsylvania, and a graduate from University of Pennsylvania medical college, was appointed New Mexico Indian Agent for the southern Apaches. He was the best of Agents presaging Tom Jeffords’ work with Cochise’s people in the 1870’s. Steck came to know Mangas Coloradas quite well. Steck realized that the Apaches had an outdated raiding economy. His Apache blueprint called for teaching the Apaches how to farm, raise cattle, and to establish a safe haven for them on a reservation in the Gila/Santa Lucia area where they would be autonomous and secure from Pindah incursion. Unfortunately, Steck’s plans ran into political difficulty as Congress was unwilling to formalize his negotiations with Mangas through a formal treaty arguing that America had already conquered it from Mexico. The other difficulty was providing adequate supplies on time to the Apaches in the form of food, clothing and tools until they became self sufficient in farming and cattle rising.  But because of the uncertainty over supplies (11 pounds of corn for adults and half the amount for children) by the Federal Government, bi- annual in March/November, as compared to the lavish monthly supplies available by either raiding or trading in Mexico, Mangus and Cochise would pull away from Steck, and continued to work out favorable terms south of the Border even though the war there had intensified. 

In 1858, Steck encountered the elusive Chokonen leader Cochise at Apache Pass. Up until this time the Chokonen band had remained relatively obscured to the Americans as a separate Chiricahua group. Events however were occurring in southern Arizona that led Cochise to interact with Steck. In 1856, American troops under Major Enoch Steen had formally occupied Tucson ending decades of Mexican occupation. Steen rather than staying there however left to establish Fort Buchannan at the head of the Sonoita Valley. American troop presence brought more Americans into Cochise’s territory looking for gold, copper in the Tubac area. Even more significant was the opening of the Butterfield Overland Mail Company in 1857-58 through the very heart of Cochise country.  In 1859, Cochise again met with Steck promising to protect and to even supply wood for the Butterfield Line. Relations between Steck and Cochise soured over adequate supplies and by the fact that a young Mexican who he had raised, by the name of Merejildo Grijalva, escaped to work for Steck. Their last meeting occurred again at Apache Pass in November 1860 as Steck was planning to leave for Washington. By then it became clear to Cochise that Americans were long on promises but fell far short of providing the essential tools to assist his people to transition from hunters/raiders to ranchers/herders. Steck too had failed to establish a reservation for his people. Cochise sent Yones the wife of his brother Coyuntura to explore the possibility of reopening peace talks with Sonora. Regarding Steck he will pass from the Apache scene and became caught up in the Navajo war arguing with General James Carlton about the devastation of the “Long Walk”. Later Steck will turn to mining and then return to Pennsylvania in the late 60’s.

Mangas attempted at reaching an accord with the Americans however was not true of the “treacherous” Mexicans toward which he carried a deep anger. In the winter of 1857-58, Mangas lost two sons in Sonora, leading him to combine with Cochise in avenging the death of his sons and torching many Sonoran villages. 

(Cochise scouts saw the steady rise of puffs of smoke rising northeast , waited and then quickly relay the message to Cochise who was then in his summer Dragoon stronghold reflecting with his brother Coyuntura on Mexican treachery and growing Pindah presence in Apacheria. The “brown ones he knew for centuries, pale faces he didn’t know”? His people, Chiricahuas, unlike Mangas people, had only limited experience with Pindah but the question that gnawed in the pit of his stomach was how long the mountain fortress of Dragoons and Chiricahua would protect his people. The runner came to his wickiup bringing the sad news that Mangas two sons had been killed and he invited Cochise to avenge their death by meeting him at Stein’s Peak. Cochise at first hesitated, tightening his fist, turning to Coyuntura grimacing “I must tell Dos-te-she about death of her two brothers.” He went out into warm sun and beckoned his oldest wife to come to him sharing the painful news in the Apache way. She immediately began to wail, to cut her hair and to throw ash over her face in memory of her brothers. “They are gone” and their names would never be mentioned again providing a speedy release into the spirit world. Cochise beckoned his warriors, led by his trustworthy lieutenant Nahilzay. He mount quickly his favorite Black stallion urging speed by waving his favorite shot gun over his head leaving the stronghold for Doubtful Canyon, with sounds of women wishing them success ringing in their ears as they made their way down  the narrow canyon trail. Travelling rapidly and in small groups Cochise followers joined with Mangas forces. “Let’s us prepare our revenge on Mexicans for this terrible crime against my people and my family” Mangas screamed in anguish as his memory reminisced the scenes of his two dead sons. Fires were light and next four night’s warriors dance/pray around campfire preparing themselves for combat against their traditional Mexican enemy. Mangas called Cochise and other leaders to discuss strategy. “Let’s us break up into small groups rendezvous near Fronteras where we will spring on the nearby ranches and villages at first sign of light.” “Let them taste full fury of my pain and avenge their treachery and deceit over the years!” Striking early the Apaches caught Mexicans off guard and showed no mercy: burning, killing and looting all they caught or encountered. After several days of raiding Mangas/Cochise left Sonora and returned to their respective strongholds to ponder where they were and what there next step should be with growing Pindah presence.)  

 Mangas and Cochise raised a large force of 500 Apaches to avenge the lost of Mangas’ two sons. Cochise and Mangas conducted a series of devastating raids into Sonora during the summer of 1858 perhaps killing as many as 300 Sonorans. Younger Apache leaders emerged during this period including Victorio and his sister Lozen, Warm Springs, and Geronimo, a war lieutenant of the Bedonkohes Band, who had just lost his wife, Alope, and mother and three children, to a Mexican attack in the spring of 1858. Geronimo was so devastated by his lost that he became a loose cannon as his desire for revenge overwhelm everything else. It was during the summer of 1858 that he adopted the name of Geronimo (St. Jerome) from his Mexican adversaries whenever they saw Goyakhla, (One Who Yawns), cried out in fear to St. Jerome, to protect them! Another prominent Chiricahua was Juh who came from Nedhi Band, and was closed to Geronimo through marrying Geronimo’s sister Ishton. He too like Cochise was quite tall but much heavier with a stutter. In counsel he often relied on Geronimo to speak in his behalf. The Apache need for revenge finally spent Cochise decided to return to the Dragon Stronghold with lots of supplies for his people.  

Cochise was well aware that Apaches needed Mexican allies to offset the growing gringo presence in Apacheria. (“Mexican villages and towns are vital to Apache survival, trade, commerce, supplies, horse, guns” he mused. He turned to Dos–te-she letting her know of how successful the raid had been but confided “maybe doing ourselves more harm than good”. He came into wickiup to dress himself for the night festivities in which warriors would share their bravery and successes followed by dancing and tiswin. Cochise realized that his people needed badly these moments of celebration to recover from the growing pressure placed on their way of life. He came to campfire and took his place next to Coyuntura listening to rhythmic sound of the drumming which placed him into an altered state of consciousness in which he relived a village attack seeing in his mind’s eye how quickly his warriors fell on the unsuspecting Mexicans farmers emerging mysteriously from the desert floor as they entered their fields and then rushed the plaza. In minutes it was over. Faces of the fallen reflect the shock of surprise as they fell to an arrow or knife or spear. And so it went from village to hacienda until Apache furor was spent and Mangas signaled “enough!” Hearing his name mentioned Cochise broke from his revere and returned to the circle to listen to heroic tales of his men to win the attention of the single Apache women gathering outside to listen. Gaans dancers appeared, protectors of Apache people, inviting spirit world to provide abundance and long life to Cochise and Chiricahuas. Dancing/drinking began and Cochise wiping his mouth from tiswin turned to Coyuntura “let’s take an early sweat tomorrow to discuss relations with Sonora/Fronteras” “We can’t afford to burn bridges there”! “Can we repair it?” “Peace brother”.)

At sunrise in July “Father Sun” rose brilliantly and cast it yellows, reds and oranges across the eerie Rock People who inhabited the Chiricahuas Peaks, Cochise and Coyuntura met in alcove of pine near a stream and watched as medicine man constructed the Sweat with willow limbs and covered the roof with juniper and blankets. They blessed themselves with sage and entered into the Sweat on their knees as  a sign of humility seeking in the healing mystery of the Sweat guidance , and watched quietly as the fireman brought in 7 “Grandfather Stone People” and placed them into the pit. Once they were arranged the ceremony began with the closing of the door plunging them into utter darkness save for the light emanating from the pit in the center of the circle. Cochise, Coyuntura, Nahilzay, and several other elders, singers and medicine man participated. Cochise as he listened to the songs, drumming, and sharing’s that occurred in each Round found himself engulfed by the Steam. It magically allowed him to release and let go, and he thanked the Creator for the land, the four-legged and winged creatures that provided food and acted as spiritual guides to the People and asked for guidance in leading his people. Leaving the Sweat refreshed he turned to Coyuntura and said “let’s return to Fronteras soon to re-establish trade with our Mexican neighbors. We cannot fight everyone! The Americans are tough foes and we need Sonoran weapons/supplies to defend ourselves.”

Returning to Fronteras with his Band, Cochise sent Coyuntura wife, Yones, who spoke Spanish to sound the Mexicans out. Yones rode back with a few others to Apache encampment on Rio Bavispe to report to Cochise who was impatiently waiting for her along with Coyuntura both concerned for her safety. “Well” Cochise asked? “They promise to meet on some French holiday, sounded like Bastille Day, promising a fiesta to celebrate a new beginning. Food, music, dancing and mescal would be provided.” “Can the Mexicans be trusted” Cochise asked. His mind rapidly reviewed past meetings that ended badly for Apaches. Turning to Coyuntura, Cochise quietly uttered. “Let’s try it but carefully!”

The next morning drew hot in the Apache camp. It was the season of Ripening when crops matured and seeds /grasses/corn became available.  As Cochise approached, his hair was fastidiously groomed hanging down over his shoulders in Apache fashion, dressed in a beautiful turquoise cotton shirt tied at the waist by a silver Concha belt he acquired in a raid. He carried a beautiful Navajo blanket with thunder designs; he motioned to the people to gather around him. He instructed: “we all know that the Mexicans can be treacherous. So to protect ourselves in Fronteras let’s now agree to be careful of drinking mescal and if anything goes wrong separate into smaller groups and travel to the stand of cottonwoods shaped like herd of Elk along Bavispe. From there we will make our way quickly northward to Chiricahuas.” A dust whirl suddenly appeared casting a shadow as they rode to Fronteras. Arriving at Fronteras, Cochise and his lieu tents approached the city leaders and exchange gifts as a sign of peace. Cochise the Navajo blanket; the Mexican delegation, Havana cigars. Apaches/Mexicans mingled together, accompanied by talking; music, shopping, tortillas, and mescal, when suddenly Cochise heard shouting and gunfire, and saw Cochon a leader go down and signaled to his people to leave immediately for the rendezvous. It ended badly for Chokonens who according to Edwin R. Sweeney “lost 26 men, 10 women and 3 chiefs.” Sweeney, ­Cochise, pp 112-113.

Cochise returning to western Stronghold trembled with rage over Fronteras and his own blindness, seeking counsel with Coyuntura about a new strategy. They sat in silence for some time broken by howling of coyotes in distance. “The defeat will be avenged, for Apache blood cries out for justice!” “War with Mexicans means that we must seek an accommodation with the Americans and once we have worked something out with Pindah we then can create the impression that an American-Apache initiative is underway making our raids into Mexico safer and more strategic. Mexicans have always feared an Apache/American combination! Now the question is where to begin relations with Pindah who we really do not know as we know the Mexicans.”This incident later appeared in “San Diego Herald”, Sept.18, 1858;”Los Angeles Star”, Oct.2, 1858. The Mexican act of deceit triggered another Fronteras attack in September by Cochise/Mangas from Stein’s Peak which was poorly executed, and led both to return to their respective northern strongholds licking their wounds to work something out with the Americans. It was getting much too hot south of the Boarder!

1850's/Twilight Period in Apache/Pindah Relations

The 1850’s was a Twilight Period in Apache-American relations as each side attempted to access the respective strengths of the other. The Apache-American (Pindah) struggle generated different responses as each side attempted to feel out the other! Some American policy-makers called for extinction- humanely if possible and if not, no quarter should be shown. Others called for civilizing the red man by transforming them into farmers, ranchers, miners. Indian Agent, Sylvester Mowrey, however insisted that reservations/ acculturalization will devastate the tribes in the long term by exposing them to alcohol, disease and prostitution. Reservations were administratively efficient from the government’s perspective but culturally divisive for the various bands many of whom were historical enemies. Crowding all the Bands together in a specific place made it easier to play one group off against another. Making the reservations even worse was that they often were established on barren land where disease and death were rampant! The other issue to peace which made these reservations unattractive was the inadequacy of food and provision for the Apaches! Their poor locations made the goal of transforming the Apaches into ranchers, herders, farmers as advocated by Indian Agent, Michael Steck, and a mockery. Ranching and farming was contrary to the Apache warrior culture, a value deeply embedded in their psychic, and part of their own sense of independence and freedom. The conundrum facing Washington was that the historical Apache- Mexican War, along with the Apaches raiding economy, may it impossible for the military to prevent Apache incursions south of the Border despite the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. In 1851, the military under Colonel Edwin Sumner decided to build a network of Forts in Apacheria as a way to stem the flow of raids into Mexico. The most strategic point was Fort Webster built at present day San Lorenzo/Santa Luca in the heart of Mangas Coloradas Chihennes’ land. But it was later removed to the Rio Grande and renamed Fort Thorn. Sumner decided to remove military garrisons from towns the size of Santa Fe, and establish them in strategic frontier points in Apacheria as a way to better control hostile Apache movement, and to better pursue their elusive enemy in search and destroy missions.  Cavalry patrols were to cris-cross the territory as a way of neutralizing Apache raids, providing protection for teamsters/miners, and settler’s wagon trains passing through or settling in the southwest.

Throughout the 50’s Mangas Coloradas and his protégé Cochise sought to weave a middle path away from an outright war against the Pindah as they intuitively sensed that they would not win against the technologically savvy Americans. Their need to conduct winter raids into Mexico for supplies and manpower had to be done in such a fashion as not to alienate the Americans. The technological superiority of the Pindah was made quite evident to the two leaders in 1857 when Colonel Benjamin Louis Eulalie Bonneville launched an expedition of 900 soldiers against the White Mountain Western Apaches and the Bedonkohes Chiricahuas in the Gila Mountains for their incursions along the Rio Grande. It was a rather complicated strategy involving a three prong encirclement operation, which although having limited success, because of the Apaches ability to vanish into the landscape, nevertheless left a deep impression on Mangas and Cochise with American firepower, and ease in mobilizing large numbers of troops when compared to the relative primitive weapons available to the Apaches, and their much smaller population base. Mangas Coloradas’ Chihennes were more vulnerable to western impact than Cochise’s Chiricahuas largely because of geography. In 1856, Michael Steck reported that Mangas’ band consisted of approximately a 1000 persons with many more being children and women than men which constituted only 20 % of those counted. (Cf, Sweeney, MC, p.331.) Mangus Coloradas Chihennes were reduced to 70 men/450 women & children; Bedonkohes of Geronimo, 125 men /500 women; Chokonens of Cochise, 125 warriors/500 women/children.  

Cochise and Mangas often sought each other’s counsel about how to handle the Americans/Mexicans. It was quite common for Mangas’ Mimbreno’s to join with Cochise’s Chokonens during the winter months to plot their joint raids into Sonora or Chihuahua. Both realized that Anglos tolerated the continuing Apache raids into Mexico as it spared them from Apache depredations, and confirm the Gringo racist prejudice that “Browns” were inherently weak/cowardly! They also played their own game of divide and rule, playing the Americans off against the Mexicans, as well as the states of Sonora and Chihuahua. Mangas at the time of Bonneville was negotiating with Janos, whereas Cochise was doing the same with Ignacio Pesqueria governor of Sonora at Fronteras. A factor motivating Mexicans to parley/trade with the Apaches was their fear that the Americans might ally with their historical enemies to seize northern Mexico for United States. Apache /Mexican relations historically followed a pattern of war, followed by negotiations/peace, and then war with excesses on each side. Apaches needed Mexicans for food, livestock, horses, mules, equipment, guns and markets. Mexican commercial symbiosis required trading with Apaches for gold, contraband goods and horses. Complicating trading arrangements was the Apaches habit of taking young Mexican boys on raiding parties, and the Mexican ruse of enticing them with whiskey in order to get their trade goods for next to nothing or to scalp them for money! Making survival more difficult for the Apaches was that the Mexicans in Sonora/Chihuahua had adopted a scorch earth policy of pursuing Apache raiders relentlessly, using Indian scouts from tribes that loathed the Apache, hiring mercenaries scalp or bounty hunters, and using trickery and bio/chemical warfare against their enemies. Maria Zuloaga of Janos an inveterate Apache hater and dominant Jefe in northwestern Chihuahua, who controlled the Corralitos’ mines, was fearful of an Anglo/Apache rapprochement in which Apaches would receive Americans arms for booty, invited Cochise and Mangus to parley in 1858 under a white flag, but instead they were feted poison food and drink leading to the death of 60 Chihennes/Chokonens. This alleged peace meeting with Janos leaders was a ployed used by the Mexicans to poison their Apache guest with tampered whiskey! This betrayal led Mangas to return to his beloved Santa Lucia to work out a more permanent agreement with John Steck who wrote about the poisoning event, Nov. 21, 1857, to James L. Collins, Superintendant of Indian Affairs, in New Mexico. Similar response occurred in Sonora under Ignacio Pesqueria, future Governor, following his decisive defeat in 1851 by the Apaches at Pozo Hediondo under Mangus Coloradas he too became militaristic and ruthless seeing in guns and treachery the only recourse to dealing with the Apaches.

 

Early Pindah Encounters Continued

Early Pindah Encounters Continued:

      

The next encounter occurred in 1851 with the appearance of the US Boundary Commission led by John Russell Bartlett and his guide John Cremony at Santa Rita Del Cobre mine. The Commission was commissioned by Washington to survey a final boundary between the United States and Mexico as a prelude to the Gadsden Purchase of 1853-54 in which American would purchase the territory south of the Gila River for $10 million dollars. Driving the deal was the desire to develop a transcontinental railroad from New Orleans to Los Angeles, to open the southwest to Southern expansion even though its deserts did not lend itself to plantations, slavery and cotton. The problem with the Bartlett Commission was that the Apaches, who had been here for centuries, were never consulted even though the area claimed ran right through the heart of their Chiricahua land! Mangas Coloradas and Cochise were deeply offended by the lack of respect that this Pindah assumption revealed. 

The desire of Mangus Coloradas to establish good relations with the Pindah was undermined by the general American attitude shared by Bartlett and Cremony that Apaches were uncivilized, doomed to extinction and could quickly be marginalized. White man’s superiority, Manifest Destiny and racism were so ingrained in the Western psychic that for all practical practices modus operands between the two peoples was well neigh impossible. Americans showed no desire to appreciate Apache culture, and were often insulting in their demeanor. Two incidents reflected the cultural chasm between the two people: two Mexican youth who had been captured and raised by the Apache sought asylum from Bartlett and although he provide monetary recompense of $212.00 to the adopted Apache parents for their return the exchange was looked upon as a terrible insult to Mangus hospitality as they had been feeding the Commission and showed the American ignorance about Apache ways in which young Mexicans often were captured and raised Apache as a way to replenish their losses. Powerful emotional and familial ties developed that no amount of money could replace. Worse Bartlett later refused to turn over a teamster who got angry and killed an Apache. Mangus Coloradas insisted on Apace justice but Bartlett insisted that American law trumpet Apache law!  Bartlett offered $20.00 to settle the matter with the aggrieved family which fell far short of avenging the injustice that Apache jurisprudence demanded. Relations between Bartlett and Mangus Coloradas broke over this matter – as the Apaches raided their horses and Bartlett soon left Santa Rita Del Cobre. (Cf, Cremony, Life, Chs.5 & 6). 

Cochise as he waited for his Father-in-law Mangas to visit reflected on the growing intrusion of the Pindah in their lands. His instincts told him that they were dangerous and Apaches would have to be careful in their dealings. Though lighter in complexion than Mexicans, they apparently shared a similar hunger for gold, silver, copper, land and were not adverse to using guns or treachery to get their way, as their war with Mexico showed. He remembered the elders recounting the arrival of the Spaniards with their iron jackets, muskets, and strange animals and how they cruelly attacked and destroyed the Pueblo people with the destruction of Acoma being one of the worse incidents.  He wondered about his own people’s fate. Pausing, Cochise rises, takes a deep breath of sweet pine air, watches his wife Dos-te-she prepare food, while his oldest son Taza,  about 10 years old, arm wrestles with a friend kicking up a cloud of dust. “Best time is at dusk”, Cochise muses, reds/pinks/blues/greens shimmer as the setting sun disappears in direction of Tucson, birds are quiet, life rests except for rattlesnakes that enjoy the coolness of the evening and hunt their prey. Apaches don’t like moving at night because snake bites often require healing by a medicine doctor. Cochise calls for Coyuntura, his alter ego and confidant. He trusted his brother’s insight and discernment and often in sweat would share his concerns and fears about their future. He asks Coyuntura what brings Mangas to our campfire. Coyuntura replies Bartlett! At that moment he hears horses approaching the Strong hold and realizes it is Magnus with his lieutenants Delgadito and Victoria. Mangas rides a superb grey and easily dismounts greeting Cochise. They gather around the campfire invoking the Great Spirit to bless their meeting as it has serious implications for Chiricahuas. Mangas is a generation older than Cochise and leads the Chihenne band located in Southwestern New Mexico bounded by the Gila River and the Mogollon/Black Mountains. Because of his physical size, Mangas intimidates all he encounters, but as Cochise had come to realize, Mangas was very shrewd about the need of unity and sought to strengthen the hand of the Chiricahuas by marrying off his 2 daughters to other Apaches including one to White Mountain, Katuhala, and the other to Coyotero, Cosito. Cochise had learned a lot from Mangas since his marriage with Dos-te -she ,and Mangas saw in Cochise a leader who had both the sagacity and skill of the legendary Child of Water and hopefully could realize his dream of bringing Apaches together. After puffing a cigarette and passing it around, Cochise asked Mangas about the encounter with Bartlett. Mangas grabbed a handful of sand and threw it on the ground with disgust. “I went seeking understanding/peace and they spit on me!” He continues: “I even offered to fight with them against the Mexicans and then Bartlett insists that we must stop our raiding of Mexicans as Pindah now are at peace!” It’s enough to make me sick. How dare they come into our lands and tell us what do!  The others felt the anger mounting within Mangas as he continues to speak …gesturing with his “red sleeves”: “they insulted us with notion of white man’s justice in which they think everything can be solved with money … as though we can eat money or money can assuage hurt felt over the death of an Apache!” Mangas pauses, Cochise respectively asks “what are we do with Pindah now that they claim our land as theirs?” Mangas hesitates and then replies “play for time until we get a better handle on these intruders from the East.”  What was not said was how well armed the Americans were with their Spencer’s and Henry repeating rifles! Venus moves across the night sky, logs crackle as fire burns low, and Cochise motions for the counsel to end. Everyone slowly rises and made their ways to wickups to reflect on meaning of Mangas story for the Apaches. As Cochise moves across the camp he winces as he hears the ominous hoot of an Owl --- and muses: “a bad sign sound for the future of Chiricahuas”.