Sonora/Chihuahua/Tucson/Apaches

Sonora and Chihuahua are located in northwest/northern Mexico, bordering Arizona and New Mexico; played a very significant role in the Cochise story, as until Mexican- American War of 1848 they were parts of Mexico. Both Sonora and Chihuahua are dominated by the Sierra Madre Mountains, deserts, and  rich deposits of gold, silver and copper as well as peppered by valleys and rivers including the Sonora/ and Bavispe, and Casas/Santa Maria in Chihuahua. These fertile valleys gave birth to the cattle industry/ rancheros. Alvar Nuneza Cabeza de Vaca was the first Spaniards to enter Chihuahua in 1528. Quickly Franciscans came to St. Barbara establishing a mission to converts the Indians which became the springboard to exploring New Mexico. In 1540, Francisco Coronado travelled through Sonora and is credited with naming the territory. The Jesuits soon followed and began to make inroads with the Pimas, Yaquis, Opatas, Tohono O’odham, and Mayo’s. Sonora and Chihuahua were geopolitically valuable as they became springboards for Spanish expansion into Arizona, California, New Mexico and Texas.

Apache presence in Sonora /Chihuahua emerged at the end of the seventeenth century. The Spanish to protect themselves from Apache incursions built presidios at Janos in 1685, in Chihuahua and Fronteras in 1690. The Apache raids were so extensive that Captain Juan Mateo Mange reported in 1737: “that many mines have been destroyed, 15 large estancias along the frontier have been totally destroyed, having lost two hundred head of cattle, mules and horses, several missions have been burned and 200 Christians have lost their lives to the Apache enemy, who sustains himself only with the bow and arrow, killing, and stealing livestock. All this has left us in ruin.” Later in the 1740’s Cochise’s people the Chiricahua Apaches arrived, and became the scourge of Sonora/Chihuahua. So successful were they that the government established a string of 23 presidios, but these proved to be ineffective against the elusive Apache. Apache depredation intensified according to Robert Salmon, Indian Revolts in Northern Spain: A Synthesis of Resistance,1680-1786, that Chihuahua began losing its population base. By 1780’s, Theodor de Croix, Commanding General of New Spain concluded that he would need 3000 troops along with Comanche assistance to subdue the Apaches.

In 1786, Spanish authorities decided to abandon their ineffectual military solution for a peace policy with the Apaches. Bernardo de Galvez, Viceroy of New Spain described it as “pacification by dependency” by which Spanish “would endeavor to make treaties with individual bands, persuade then to settle near military stations where they could receive food rations, give them low –quality weapons for hunting, encourage trade. Most important was to use “divide and conquer tactics when appropriate “by playing one Apache Band against another, or against other tribes against the Apaches. (Cf, Martinez, Troublesome Border). The policy of pacification /dependence did nonetheless create an era of relative peace which would basically prevail during Cochise’s birth in 1810 and continued through his adolescence until 1830 when conflict would resume again between Apaches and Mexicans in Sonora/ Chihuahua. The Spanish peace policy unraveled because of Mexican Independence in 1822, and its accompanying administrative costs, as well as by the desire of the new government in Mexico City to reassert its control over the resources of the northern territories as a way of consolidating its position against the expanding movement for separatism by the growing population of American settlers in Texas. (Cf, John Schamal, “Sonora: Four Centuries of Indigenous Resistance”) Termination of the peace policy and its loss of food/supplies, however, forced the Apache Bands to return to raiding throughout the southwest. Pisago Cabezon, Cochise’s father, and Mangas Coloradas emerged as the new leaders and orchestrated the lethal Apache response to the Mexican shift in policy. The conflict between the Mexicans and the “los indios barbarous” became so deadly that it ultimately weakened Mexico’s ability to respond to American expansionism paving the way for the Mexican – American War, 1846-48, and the Gadsden Purchase of 1854, which brought the Pindah into Apacheria. A serious Mexican weakness, described by Brian Delay in, War Of A Thousand Deserts, was the inability of Sonora and Chihuahua leadership to collaborate against the Apaches. The Sonoran saw the Apaches as barbarians that had to be ethnically cleansed, whereas, the Chihuahuan favored tempering war with peace. This ambiguity was connected to the Mestizos heritage of the Mexican state making it difficult to wage a blatant race war against “Indians” as America would do in the name of “Exceptionalism” and “Manifest Destiny”. As the war became increasingly cruel it lead the Mexicans to introduce scalping in the 1830’s as a way of terrorizing Apaches leading them to hire outside American Scalp Hunters. Two infamous Scalp Hunters were John James Johnson and James Kirker who came as wolves in sheep clothing promising whiskey, guns and cloth to the Apaches only to treacherously set them up for massacre. Johnson is connected with the 1837 slaughter of twenty Apaches, and Kirker with the massacre at Galena in 1846 in which possibly Cochise’s father, Pisago Cabezon, lost his life along with 130 other Chiricahuas. Jason Betzinez (I fought With Geronimo, Vol. I) recalls it as a horrendous experience touching many families. Apache responses to these killings in Sonora /Chihuahua were so devastating that population loss became endemic as Mexicans deserted the cities/villages for larger cities or States. Transportation came to a standstill, paralyzing economic growth, cattle and mining goods could not be shipped. Rancheria suffered from lack of vaqueros and field hands. Sonora/Chihuahua became wastelands. An 1848 Sonora report indicated how extensive the psychological and material damage was by reporting “the abandonment of ninety ranches, thirty haciendas, and twenty-six mines in the state. “ (Cf, War Of A Thousand Deserts.p.195.).

 Arizona and Tucson however are more central to the Cochise story. Regarding the name Arizona it probably comes from Tohono O’ odham word for “small spring” or else connected with Basque word “aritz ona”, “the good oak.” Spanish Tucson became a small village center with a population of maybe 3-500 by Cochise’s birth. It was silver/gold that first brought miners and later ranchers into Arizona along the Santa Cruz river that ran southward from Tucson to Tubac and Nogales. The Jesuits became major players in the region establishing a Mission Church at Tumacaroi located south of Tubac which had been a Tohono O’Odham site in 1691, and Mission San Xavier Bac, south of Tucson, in 1700. Later in the eighteenth century the Jesuits were expelled by the Spanish Bourbons and replaced by the Franciscans, but because of growing Apache pressure the Tumacaroi mission was abandoned at the end of the eighteenth century. In 1752, the Spanish established a presidio in Tubac to protect the area from the different Indian tribes. It was from Tubac/Tucson that the Spanish launched their campaigns against the Apaches with their Indian allies: Opatas, Pimas and Navajos. Tucson presidio was harassed by Apaches in the 1770’s with worse attacks occurring in the 80’s. The Tucson population was essentially Mestizos or an Indian village.  It was a Spanish outpost in a sea of Indians. The ruling elite of Tucson however came primarily from Sonora, and were connected to the wealthy Spanish Crillos families there. Sonoran census of Tucson in 1831 listed only 465 Mexicans with an ironically even larger Apache presence of 486 who were peaceful.

 In the 1820’s Americans began appearing in Arizona prospecting for furs, gold and silver. American expansionism into the southwest and Texas began pointing to Mexican- American War This boundary change would profoundly impact Cochise’s people. Kit Carson was one of the earlier hunters who came into the area.  Tucson would be occupied by the Mormon Battalion during the Mexican-American War, and then reverted back to Mexico by the Treaty of Guadalupe –Hidalgo in1848. In the early 1850’s, Washington showed a renewed interest in the lands south of the Gila River as the topography of Apacheria lend itself to the building of a railroad linking New Orleans to San Diego thereby complementing the building of the Central Pacific from Sacramento and consolidating American control over Far West. James Gadsden, American ambassador to Mexico, negotiated the 10 million dollar deal which brought the areas of Las Cruces, New Mexico, Tucson and Yuma into the American frame in 1853. It was the Gadsden Purchase that dramatically reshaped the destiny of Cochise as the treaty brought Americans into the Chiricahua Apache heartland. Tucson too would change from a Mexican- Indian village into an American military /commercial/transportation hub, becoming a major stop for the Butterfield Overland Mail that linked Missouri to California, and would be a central part in the Cochise story. For a while Tucson would be the western capitol of the Confederacy until it was driven out by the Carlton’s California Column in summer of 1862 ending up as a part of New Mexico. In 1863, Arizona Territory was established with Tucson briefly being its capitol from 1867-1877.Tucson too would  serve as a major military center revolving around Fort Lowell, built on a Hohokam site, throughout the Apache period, and because of the monies to be made in fighting the Apaches gave birth to the infamous “Tucson Ring”. The “Tucson Ring” consisted of politicians, suppliers, merchants, Indian haters who made tons of monies from the Apache War, and were largely responsible for fomenting the ethnic racism and fear that permeated white thinking about the “Apache Problem.” For Cochise, although Tucson was outside his traditional lands, it would loom personally important because of the deep relationship he would forge with Tom Jeffords, who for awhile was responsible for mail delivery through Cochise country. One story has it that Jeffords went alone into Cochise’s Stronghold in order to guarantee the safety of the mail riders marking the beginnings of their deep relationship.

Spanish Presence in the Southwest

Between 1540-42 another group of strangers appeared in the southwest, much lighter in complexion, wearing heavy armor and riding strange looking four legged animals (large dogs) seeking the elusive “Seven Cities of Gold.”  This expeditionary force was led by Coronado, a Spanish soldier of fortune, who traveled   from Mexico to Arizona/New Mexico, reaching indeed to the plains of Kansas before returning empty handed and dying in Mexico. In his search, many Pueblo villages were sacked and destroyed including the alleged Zuni "golden village" of Cibola. Ironically Coronado on his way to Cibola would pass through Cochise country including Sulphur Springs, Dragoon and Chiricahua Mountains.  The Dragoon and Chiricahuas today make up part of the Coronado National Forest in Arizona. For the natives of the southwest, Coronado’s expedition was nothing more than a passing dark cloud with little lasting impact.  

Spanish presence in Mexico begins with Cortez's conquest of the Aztecs in 1520 and the destruction of the beautiful Aztec capitol of Tenochtitlan with a population of 200,000. Tenochtitlan was described by one eye witness, Bernard Diaz, as breathtaking in its beauty; architect and water ways. It was twice as large as London, Rome or Venice. Though Spanish steel and arms made the Spanish conquest possible it was primarily white man’s diseases, measles, smallpox, influenza that brought Aztecs to their knees. It's estimated that native populations throughout the Americas experienced a population collapse of ninety percent by 1600. Such a loss was destructive of native culture. The Apaches too would fall victim to these diseases often seriously weakening their bands leadership and impacting their knowledge, ceremonies and ritual. 

Like Coronado the Spanish Conquistadores were motivated by “gold” and “god”. It is estimated that between 1500 and 1650, Spain extracted 20.000 tons of silver and 200 tons of gold from the “New World." This treasure house of bullion made Spain the paramount European/Global power and laid the basis for a money economy. The Presidio or military garrison was the main vehicle of controlling the indigenous populations of what later became known as “New Spain”. The Church was the other institution of control and through its Missions/missionary effort sought to exercise the indigenous populations of their "paganism" by conversion, often forceful, to Christianity. Native people were declared pagans- soulless and sub-human by the Papal Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494 which divided South America between Portugal and Spain. This prejudice led natives to be ruthlessly exploited and abused by state in the mines/estates exemplified by the Encomienda system and by the Church in the Missions. Native demonization was intensified by racism and it was so destruction of Native populations that Spanish/Portuguese had to turn to the African slave trade in which millions of Africans were packed into slave ships only to perish on the Middle Passage. Historians estimate that 15-30 million people died of disease, malnutrition and chains.

Spanish North America became part of the vice royalty of “New Spain” administered from Mexico City. Spanish Conquistadores and their wealthy Rancheros counterparts, who established the great cattle ranches and sugar/cotton plantations, established by the seventeenth century a rigidly stratified social hierarchy based on the example of Madrid in which power, status and position were based on color/blood and ancestry. At the top of the social pyramid were the Peninsulares, Spaniards born in Spain, who controlled New Spain as viceroyals or governors. Closely aligned to them were the Crillos, Spaniards born in the new world, who occupied this second tier of power as mayors, military commanders, bishops and great ranchers/plantation owners. The next class in the colonial hierarchy was the Mestizos, peoples of mixed blood. Primarily European/Indian, but in some cases European/African called mulattoes. Mestizos were to be found as craftsmen, traders, merchants, shopkeepers and many as vaqueros/cowboys who worked on the large cattle haciendas. Last were the peons, mainly Indian, who had no personal property or were in debt and worked on the great estates or haciendas for paltry wages or food. Another segment of peons were zambas of Indian-African ancestry. Zambas were the most discriminated group of people in Mexico.  The power elite were fairer in complexion, blonde with blue eyes, whereas the Mestizos and peons were darker in color with brown eyes, and often experienced terrible discrimination and prejudice because of color from their ruling counterparts. Mixing of the races was an outcome of conquest and the inability of Spanish entrepreneurs/explorers to persuade Spanish women to come and build a home in the New World. The example was set by Cortez who married La Manche who some consider to be the “Mother Metaphor” for Mestizos Mexico. The Apaches certainly experienced this centuries old Spanish racial prejudice, but in their case they would be described as “los barbarous”.

In 1598, Juan de Onate inspired by the “Seven Cities of Gold” mythology led another expedition north arriving at what later would become the capitol city of New Mexico, Santa Fe. The Territory of New Mexico also included western Texas, southern Colorado, the Oklahoma Panhandle and southwestern Kansas. It was pretty desolate area except for the various tribes that inhabited it: Puebloans, Apaches, Comanche, southern Cheyenne, Arapahos, and the Buffalo herds which grazed across the southern Plains. The Spanish sought to win the support of the Puebloans by offering protection to them from the marauding Apaches in exchange for their accepting Spanish rule/ Christianity. The Spanish colony at Santa Fe saw a dramatic increase in Pueblo conversions from more than a 100 to 20,000 by 1626. Christian conversion, however, meant incessant labor on church lands at the expense of their own livelihood. By the1670’s, drought, disease and Church teaching began to alienate the Puebloans who believed that the hereafter was below, not in the heaven, and ultimately everyone, and not just baptized persons, returned to the underworld. The Franciscans, however, brooked no compromise in doctrine and targeted Puebloan medicine men that were flogged, imprisoned and executed for their recalcitrance leading to the Pueblo Revolt of 1680 in which the Spaniards were driven out of Santa Fe fleeing to El Paso. The Spanish defeat was the only time that North American indigenous peoples succeeded in forcing Europeans to return large areas of territory. The Pueblo victory was pyrrhic as the Spaniards and Friars soon returned in 1692. They quickly re-established their control by appealing to the former Christian members who felt bad about their betrayal and participating in the Pueblo uprising showing how easily Westernization could break tribal unity into traditionalists and moderns.

Spanish/Mexican in Apacheria

 About 1300 CE a new people arrived in the southwest who spoke an Athapaskan language. When they first appeared, the southwest was undergoing a profound cultural change as the sophisticated world of the Anazai centering on Chaco Canyon was shattering probably for ecological reasons. Their descendants would transform themselves into a new network of Puebloans villages which encompassed much of Arizona and New Mexico, from the Colorado to the Rio Grande Rivers. These settlements among others included Hopi, Zuni, Acoma, Jemez, Santa Fe and Taos. These were essentially farming villages raising beans, corn, and squash, and living in multi-story pueblos for community and safety. It was the Puebloans who named these strangers, who began to appear in their midst, Apache which translates as enemy or stranger. The Apaches, hunters and gatherers, upon entering a strange land went through a process of acculturalization, both geographical and cultural. Because of Pueblo locations and geography the Chiricahuas Apaches became a mountain people. This was especially true of Cochise’s people, named Chiricahuas, which means “Mountain Wild Turkeys”. Cochise Band, the Chokonen Chiricahuas, ultimately settled in southeast corner of Arizona and became the people of the Dragoon/ Chiricahuas Mountains which offered them incredible variety of food and protection. The Apaches adopted many themes/customs/ beliefs from the Puebloans which in time became integrated into their oral stories about migration, Creation, and belief. In addition, they often trade with Pueblos for food stuff, cloth, pottery and turquoise. At other times, they might raid Pueblos when climate and hunting made life difficult. Pueblos had a much greater influence on the Eastern Apache Bands then the Western like Cochise’ Chokonen because of geography and proximity.

Hunting, Raiding, Horses

 Hunting/Raiding: The Spanish brought the horse to the New World and by the seventeenth century large herds began to move across the plains. The Comanche’s became the first people to domesticate the horse on the Staked Plains and their knowledge was quickly learned by other tribes including the Apaches whose attitude toward horses was pragmatic. They rode them only as long as they helped in raiding or in a conflict and would abandon them without sentimentality to fight on foot in the desert or among rocks when that proved more effective. Horses were expendable not Apaches!  Pony was similarly considered a food delicacy and often roasted. When General Howard meets with Cochise in 1872 he was feed Pony! Apache warrior training emphasized the absolute need to rely on self and not on horses or other external resources. Hunting was a significant economic activity to raiding. Apaches were great hunters and used the bow as the weapon of choice. They often used poison arrows to bring down their four legged quarry: deer, antelope, buffalo although the latter herds were actually outside Apacheria. Fall was the major time to hunt. Animals were skinned and butchered on the spot and hides were used for clothing, containers and a host of other items. Sharing of meat among the elderly, widows and orphan was prized among the Apaches as it manifested compassion. Cochise excelled at this as a mark of his leadership. Raiding was a natural extension of their hunting/gathering tradition. Raids occurred in the winter when food supplies were low. Raiding parties were small in number averaging ten and they often attacked Mexican Rancheros or American mines where there were large herds of livestock: cattle, horse, and sheep. Another goal was to take Mexican infants or young children, especially male, who would be brought back to Apacheria to be, raised Apache. Cochise had captured a young Mexican by name of Grijalva Merejildo in 1849 that he raised as his own. Ten years later he would escape and became a formidable foe scouting for US Army. (Cf, Sweeney, Merejildo Grijalva, 1992) In addition, Apaches were taught to conduct their raids with cunning/stealth by moving slowly and quietly into a Spanish, Mexican or American pueblo or town. As they approached the site they spoke in a special code, used hand signals and mirrors. Dawn was their favorite time to attack when Mexicans /Americans were still groggy from sleep. The raiding party would divide into smaller units with 2-3 responsible for running off the livestock. Once they gathered the animals they would drive them without stopping to their encampment so as to avoid capture.

Other tactics used by the Apaches against their superior enemies involved creating the illusion of greater numbers by racing their ponies back and forth, surprise and terror accompanied by shouting, yelling, taunting their enemies with images of a horrible death. Though outnumbered, Apaches believed that they could nevertheless win, each warrior was viewed as a self-contained fighting unit and they were masters at using the southwest landscape to their advantage. For instance, , Geronimo with only 35 warriors called “hesh-kes” or wild ones in 1885-86 held off one quarter of American military before surrendering to General Miles in Skelton Canyon. They were taught how to disappear into the sand, vanish at night ,and some leaders had special psychic powers over nature. Geronimo was known to raise dust storms which enabled him and his followers to escape pursuers. To protect the Band from attack Apaches had institutionalized the strategy of rendezvous or prearranged points where they would scatter  in case of being attack by Mexicans, Americans or miners before regathering.

      Another Chiricahua form of raiding consisted of avenging personal loss.  Apaches believed in collective guilt meaning that they held all Mexicans/ Pindah’s responsible for the losses that they experienced regardless of whether or not they had been personally involved. The death of one Apache was the responsibility of all Mexican/American, for all shared in the perception that Apaches were animals, sub-humans who should be hunted down like crazy dogs. This is certainly true of Cochise after the hanging of his brother, Coyuntura, at Apache Pass in February 1861. Cochise launched a war of revenge which would last more than 10 years in which thousands of Pindah’s paid with their lives, because of the rash act of Lieutenant George Bascom, a recent graduate from West Point, who unjustly accused Cochise of stealing a young boy, Mickey Free, adopted son of John Ward, from the Ward ranch located near Santa Cruz river. This type of raiding began with the Spanish and was intensified by the scalping of Apaches which became official Mexican policy in the states of Sonora and Chihuahua, and by the emergence of Mexican/American Bounty Hunters, who got rich seeking scalps often of children/women. Bounty Hunting was lucrative profession netting in the vicinity of $50-70,000 dollars a year. Generally the family of the dead person would demand justice by cutting their hair, slashing their arms and insisting that the spirit of the dead be revenged by relatives and friends. One of the more famous examples of this was Nana’s Raid to avenge the death of Victorio in August 1881. Nana, 80 years old, and his guerrilla band of perhaps thirty warriors travelled a thousand miles, killing 60-70 Americans/Mexicans, and were able to elude more than thousand troops before escaping into Mexico. (Cf. De Witt, Avenging Victorio , fictional account,  Sweeney, Cochise to Geronimo, pp 76-77,)

Hunting/Raidingg/Horses

Hunting/Raiding: The Spanish brought the horse to the New World and by the seventeenth century large herds began to move across the plains. The Comanche’s became the first people to domesticate the horse on the Staked Plains and their knowledge was quickly learned by other tribes including the Apaches whose attitude toward horses was pragmatic. They rode them only as long as they helped in raiding or in a conflict and would abandon them without sentimentality to fight on foot in the desert or among rocks when that proved more effective. Horses were expendable not Apaches!  Pony was similarly considered a food delicacy and often roasted. When General Howard meets with Cochise in 1872 he was feed Pony! Apache warrior training emphasized the absolute need to rely on self and not on horses or other external resources. Hunting was a significant economic activity to raiding. Apaches were great hunters and used the bow as the weapon of choice. They often used poison arrows to bring down their four legged quarry: deer, antelope, buffalo although the latter herds were actually outside Apacheria. Fall was the major time to hunt. Animals were skinned and butchered on the spot and hides were used for clothing, containers and a host of other items. Sharing of meat among the elderly, widows and orphan was prized among the Apaches as it manifested compassion. Cochise excelled at this as a mark of his leadership. Raiding was a natural extension of their hunting/gathering tradition. Raids occurred in the winter when food supplies were low. Raiding parties were small in number averaging ten and they often attacked Mexican Rancheros or American mines where there were large herds of livestock: cattle, horse, and sheep. Another goal was to take Mexican infants or young children, especially male, who would be brought back to Apacheria to be, raised Apache. Cochise had captured a young Mexican by name of Grijalva Merejildo in 1849 that he raised as his own. Ten years later he would escape and became a formidable foe scouting for US Army. (Cf, Sweeney, Merejildo Grijalva, 1992) In addition, Apaches were taught to conduct their raids with cunning/stealth by moving slowly and quietly into a Spanish, Mexican or American pueblo or town. As they approached the site they spoke in a special code, used hand signals and mirrors. Dawn was their favorite time to attack when Mexicans /Americans were still groggy from sleep. The raiding party would divide into smaller units with 2-3 responsible for running off the livestock. Once they gathered the animals they would drive them without stopping to their encampment so as to avoid capture.

Other tactics used by the Apaches against their superior enemies involved creating the illusion of greater numbers by racing their ponies back and forth, surprise and terror accompanied by shouting, yelling, taunting their enemies with images of a horrible death. Though outnumbered, Apaches believed that they could nevertheless win, each warrior was viewed as a self-contained fighting unit and they were masters at using the southwest landscape to their advantage. For instance, , Geronimo with only 35 warriors called “hesh-kes” or wild ones in 1885-86 held off one quarter of American military before surrendering to General Miles in Skelton Canyon. They were taught how to disappear into the sand, vanish at night ,and some leaders had special psychic powers over nature. Geronimo was known to raise dust storms which enabled him and his followers to escape pursuers. To protect the Band from attack Apaches had institutionalized the strategy of rendezvous or prearranged points where they would scatter  in case of being attack by Mexicans, Americans or miners before regathering.

      Another Chiricahua form of raiding consisted of avenging personal loss.  Apaches believed in collective guilt meaning that they held all Mexicans/ Pindah’s responsible for the losses that they experienced regardless of whether or not they had been personally involved. The death of one Apache was the responsibility of all Mexican/American, for all shared in the perception that Apaches were animals, sub-humans who should be hunted down like crazy dogs. This is certainly true of Cochise after the hanging of his brother, Coyuntura, at Apache Pass in February 1861. Cochise launched a war of revenge which would last more than 10 years in which thousands of Pindah’s paid with their lives, because of the rash act of Lieutenant George Bascom, a recent graduate from West Point, who unjustly accused Cochise of stealing a young boy, Mickey Free, adopted son of John Ward, from the Ward ranch located near Santa Cruz river. This type of raiding began with the Spanish and was intensified by the scalping of Apaches which became official Mexican policy in the states of Sonora and Chihuahua, and by the emergence of Mexican/American Bounty Hunters, who got rich seeking scalps often of children/women. Bounty Hunting was lucrative profession netting in the vicinity of $50-70,000 dollars a year. Generally the family of the dead person would demand justice by cutting their hair, slashing their arms and insisting that the spirit of the dead be revenged by relatives and friends. One of the more famous examples of this was Nana’s Raid to avenge the death of Victorio in August 1881. Nana, 80 years old, and his guerrilla band of perhaps thirty warriors travelled a thousand miles, killing 60-70 Americans/Mexicans, and were able to elude more than thousand troops before escaping into Mexico. (Cf. De Witt, Avenging Victorio , fictional account,  Sweeney, Cochise to Geronimo, pp 76-77,)

Warrior Training

Training of Warriors began at age of 6 or 7.  Young boys were taken under the wing of a male relative: father, grandfather, paternal uncle and given a bow/arrow and taught how to wrestle. The basic philosophy of Apache training was that even if outgunned or outnumbered they should never be outfought or outmaneuvered.  Training was crucial for survival as it was essential to minimize warrior losses in light of the larger populations of their enemies.  Death was to be avoided.  It was better to fight another day than to die meaninglessly.  Sometimes it was better to end a conflict with two combatants fighting to death than to take useless losses by risking the lives of five or six.  Novices were disciplined by games to enhance their endurance from racing before dawn for ten miles without swallowing any water, or learning to swim in icy water, to activities that increased strength/agility including hand-to-hand combat, wrestling, and developing dexterity in horsemanship.  Apache coordination/flexibility was facilitated by shooting arrows/stones through a rolling hoop or at birds, squirrels, rabbits, or organizing sling shot battles amongst themselves.  From age 10-12 Cochise’s training regimen became more psychological as he was taught to rely only on himself:

“My son, you know no one will help you in this world.
You run to that mountain and come back.

That will make you strong.

My son, you know no one is your friend, not even your sister, your father or your mother.
Your legs are your friends; your brain is your friend;
Your eyesight is your friend; your hair is your friend; your hands are your friends; you must do something with them.
When you grow up you live with these things and think about it.”

Other principles Cochise was taught were:  “You must have your arrows and your bows where you can grab them.  Keep your knife beside you.  Have your moccasins ready.  Be on alert in peace or war.  Don’t spend all your time sleeping.  Get up when the morning star comes out.  Watch for that star.  Don’t let it get up before you do.”

At fourteen, Cochise like others before him became a warrior novice.  The training regimen became more psychological focused on quieting the mind and the importance of obedience and silence.  At this time, under the guidance of a medicine man, Cochise would embark on a four day Vision Quest to acquire clarity about his identity as well as insights into his dark side or fears so that they could be mastered.  Cochise, during fasting, would fall in and out of altered states of consciousness.  Within these dream states, he received insights into his power medicine through the appearance of animal messengers who would instruct him how to prepare for battle and what to wear to protect him from the enemy.  Cochise’s novitiate ended by participating in four raids.  During this time, Cochise invoked the persona of “Child of Water” and reenacted the ancient Creation Story of “slaying of monsters.” Sexual intercourse was taboo!  On the raid, only cold food was allowed, avoiding horse injuries emphasized, and water was drunk through a special straw.  These rituals were established to develop greater self-control in battle.  Generally on these raids Cochise’s role was limited to that of gathering wood, watching horses, and clearing the camp sites.  Cochise, upon successfully completing his last raid, would be accepted by the warriors as a member.  On these raids, Cochise learned never to travel in the desert daylight as it raised too much dust, to approach water springs only in the stillness of night, to rest at night in hollows where the enemy would never think to look, and when caught in the open he was instructed to imitate the lizard by covering self with sand.  Cochise similarly learned how to read track signs as every track is uniquely different in size and weight, and instructed to move away from gunfire by circling around like a hawk.  Cochise excelled with the spear, a symbol of leadership, which was appropriate to his role as leader of Chokonens.

Apache Women

Apache Women were central to the culture because of the fragility of life in the southwest. In fact it can be stated that women were regarded as the mainstay of their culture. Surprisingly in light of the warrior ethos of the Apaches the culture was actually matrilineal and matriarchal! In the Apache culture, women were viewed as superior to men, sexism was absent. Their centrality flowed from the Creation Story revolving around “White Painted Lady”, their role in sowing and gathering food and in sustaining the future of the tribe through child birth. In fall they dug roots, prickly pears gathered, acorns, pinion nuts, bean of mesquite and banana like fruit of the yucca. In spring/summer they filled their baskets, light shallow trays or tall flat bottom called burden baskets for transporting or storing with wild onions, greens, grass seeds, berries and cactus fruit. In short it was the women who provided for the welfare of the tribe; they knew every source of precious water, planned clan movements on the basis of ripening plants or abundance of small game including prairie dogs and rabbits and their word was law superseding even the hunting and raiding of men! Women also provided spiritual support by praying for good fortune when their men were away on raids; whenever they pulled a pot from a camp fire there was a silent remembrance or reflection. They were careful in stacking wood as it was a belief that scattered kindling brought bad luck! Occasionally women acted as healers/herbalist and all were skilled in defending themselves against attack being familiar with the warrior arts of knives, bows/arrows/ spears/guns. Self-defense was important especially after scalp hunting became a Mexican/American policy. Bounty hunters, soldiers, trappers often decorated their saddles with scalps and sold Apache women into bondage. They were learned in the tactic of rendezvous, camouflage, tracking, riding of horses. There is a story of how a group of captured Apache women were able to escape from central Mexico and work their way back to Apacheria by traveling at night and staying off the main arteries and living off the land showing a keen geographic understanding as well as manifesting a survival instinct equal to any warrior. Lozen the younger sister of Victoria was a women warrior without equal who constantly fought. Lozen was described by James Kaywaykla as a “… magnificent women on a beautiful horse” urging the women and children to cross the treacherous Rio Grande River after Victoria’s band fled from the hated San Carlos Reservation. She never married and had the gift of clairvoyance being able to determine where the enemy was by a tingling in her palm. As she stated: “I see as one from a height sees in every direction.” Unfortunately Lozen was not there when Victorio was surrounded by Mexican troops in October 1880. Her life spans the Apache Wars from the conflict with Mexico to the annexation of Apacheria by the Pindah to the surrender of Geronimo in 1886 which she negotiated. Lozen was exiled to the East where she died of tuberculosis in Alabama in 1890. (Cf, Aleshire, Warrior Women, pp.54-57.)

Cochise's Family/Inner Circle

 

                     KEY FAMILY MEMBERS:

                                                                            

1.      COYUNTURA (Kin-o-tera) - CLOSEST brother to Cochise. Often served as a sounding board /advisor. His wife Yones spoke Spanish and often negotiated with Mexicans in Sonora/Chihuahua. Had a son Chie who guided General O. O. Howard to Cochise’s camp in the Dragoon Mountains in 1872. Coyuntura was one of Cochise’s relatives who were hung by Lieutenant Bascom at Apache Pass in February 1861 triggering the Apache Wars. Cochise was devastated by the death of his brother Coyuntura. According to Sweeney Cochise possibly marries Yones.(Cf, Sweeney,p.166)

2.      Juan - was Cochise’s younger brother who was known for his humor and fun making. Though lacking the seriousness/insight of Coyuntura his laughter was often a good tonic for Cochise.

3.      Dos-teh-seh (“Something already cooks by the fire”) – daughter of Mangas Coloradas. Her mother was the legendary beautiful Mexican women that Mangas brought to Chihenne camp causing a conflict with his first wife’s family leading to a knife fight in which Mangas slayed his two brothers-in-law. Dos-teh-seh was a warrior, beautiful, intelligent, who after the death of Coyuntura became Cochise‘s alter ego. Cochise and she married in late 1830’s. (Cf, Aleshire, pp. 55-56). She gave birth to two boys:

4.      Taza the eldest was born around 1840. He looked more like his grandfather, Mangas Coloradas, although smaller in stature. Cochise trained Taza to be his heir apparent and had him promise in June 1876 to follow the road of peace. Cochise asked his lieutenants to swear allegiance to Taza which unfortunately broke down after Cochise’s passing. Taza witnessed the collapse of the Chiricahua Reservation and although disheartened he agree to lead his people to San Carlos. Only half of the Band followed him. Later on a good will trip to Washington with Indian Agent John P. Clum he caught pneumonia and was buried in the Congressional cemetery in Washington in September 1876.

5.      Nachise (“Wei-chi-ti or Mischief Maker”) the younger son was born in mid- 1850’s. Nachise in looks favored his father. And after the death of Taza would emerge as leader of the Chokonens. Played a significant role in the Geronimo conflicts of 70’and 80’s. Surrender to General Miles in 1886 and then with rest of the Chiricahuas sent to Florida/Alabama as prisoners of war. In 1894 he along with the remaining Chiricahuas were sent to Fort Sill Oklahoma where they would remain prisoners until 1913. Then Naiche and 77 others were offered an opportunity to move to Mescalero Reservation in New Mexico.  Naiche died there in 1919.

6.      Cochise had another or 2nd wife whose name remains unknown. She gave birth to two daughters in late 50’/early 60’s called Dash-den-zhoos and Naithlo-tonz. Neither survived. Apache custom was never to use the name of a person who has passed a sit impeded their transition to the “Spirit World.” Creates difficulty in researching.

7.      Elbys Naiche Hugar is great/great granddaughter of Cochise. Elbys lives on Mescalero Reservation where over the years she has taken a leadership role in preserving Apache culture helping to bring back the language. She has been curator of Mescalero Apache Cultural Center and has served has a film consultant. (Cf., Stockel, pp.63-87.)

Cochise/Teamsters/Return Scenario

         

Cochise and 5 of his warriors riding back from a meeting with Mangas Coloradas at Stein’s Peak were crossing Sulphur Spring when they saw dust in the distance manufactured by a Pindah supply train of 5 teamsters carrying cotton cloth, bales of wire, ammunition on the Tucson road. Cochise motioned to his warriors to fan out, and to prepare an ambush. The warriors drawing from the example of legendary Child - of -Water buried themselves into the sand like gophers, invisible to oncoming teamsters, and as the three wagons came across the hill, the phantom warriors emerged ghost like from the landscape striking mercilessly and quickly. It was over in five minutes. The warriors freed the mules from the wagons, gathered the guns and cotton cloth, and prepared to vanish into Dragoons.  Cochise before leaving had his men check the pockets of the slain Pindah for gold/money which could be traded in Sonora or Chihuahua for guns/ammunition. One of the whites still alive but badly wounded was found with an Apache scalp in his saddle bag. Cochise winced upon seeing the scalp, probably a women or child, felt his rage exploding within. He heard the anguish of the women crying out for justice. Apaches did not take scalps as they saw such mutilation as a terrible “spiritual” travesty.  Over the years the war with Pindah had become increasingly brutal. Cochise ordered his men to dig a hole and placed the Pindah in it as deep as his neck so only the head remained visible. Then he had his men covered the man‘s head with honey and watched as the ants came and began to eat away  his face, eyes, nose with the man crying  loudly for mercy. The death was agonizing. Apache justice would be served as it would doom the victim to wonder aimlessly in the spirit world. Cochise took inner satisfaction: “it was just punishment for the wrongs done the Apaches who were ironically viewed as “animals” by Whites”. Mounting his roan, he then motioned Nahilzay to lead the way back to western stronghold as the “People” would begin to worry about what was delaying him. Within an hour, the silhouettes of the Dragoons appeared, and flashing glass signals were sent that Cheis was returning. Chokonens made ready for his return by preparing a welcome. Women lit the fires into the stronghold and the people gathered forming a path and began to intone “Here He comes”, “Here He comes”, and “He ride before them”, “His name is Cheis”, “His Name is Cheis”. As Cochise and the small party emerged from the Canyon into the protective valley below the greeting became ever louder. Nahilzay leading the way gave a short rendition of their encountered with the Teamsters, and the role played by Cochise as a prelude to celebration that would take place that evening regarding their safe return in which the “People” would thank the mountain spirits, “Gaans", for the continued protection of their leader.

Preface/Cochise: Life/Times

 

My initial encounter with Cochise came during World War II when my parents’ relationship broke and I found myself profoundly affected by the loss of my Father. It was a big loss; I struggled for years over it. I was caught in the deep journey described by Joseph Campbell as the “Search for the Father”. As an “orphan archetype” I was confused, angry and self-destructive. My self-image had been bruised. Luckily my mother realizing that she could no longer manage me sent me off at the age of eight to live with my Uncle/Aunt and cousins. This provided stability and role models to learn from. While there I was drawn to native culture. I am not sure why or how the “spiritual magic” entered into my life leading me in their direction. I read everything I could about the Native experience and probably identified with them too as they had been orphaned/demonized and ethnically cleansed but nonetheless displayed incredible nobility, honor, and courage in the face of overwhelming odds.

At this juncture when I was about twelve Cochise arrived. The vehicle that brought him alive was the film “Broken Arrow” made in 1950. Jeff Chandler played Cochise, and although he was not indigenous, his role was so powerful that it exercised a significant emotional influence upon me. The film then led me to the historical fictional novel from which it was drawn, namely, Blood Brother, written by Elliot Arnold in 1947. My mother retells the story that when we first saw the film she realized the impact it was having and we stayed for all 5 showings. The same passion gripped me when I read Blood Brother. If I read it once I must have read it a dozen times. I just couldn’t get enough of the “Cochise Story”, I was snake bitten. I was drawn to Cochise’s honesty, compassion, strength, courage, and wisdom. He was the iconic “Father” figure and I wanted to imitate and internalize the qualities he had displayed during a difficult time for the Apaches as they experienced a serious challenge from a different culture.

Extraordinarily Cochise emerged as my internal “Sage Archetype” or voice/ guide who helped me to transform the youthful negative “orphan” images/patterns of victim, self-piety into a deeper insight that from loss emerges growth, wisdom and transformation. Out of this budding relationship with Cochise came the realization that everyone has the ability to create through the power of imagination and knowledge internal models of inspiration leading to a deeper appreciation of self and the frailties of the human condition humanity. Cochise expanded my appreciation for diversity and Native culture. There was so much “wisdom” that the dominant culture could learn from the Apaches about community, relationships, “Mother Earth”, four legged, nature, “rock people”, time, and healing. Indeed it wasn’t until 1989 that I realized what a profound impact Cochise had in shaping my life.  Upon leaving a “Forty Day Spiritual Retreat” in Taos, I along with a friend, drove to Chiricahuas Mountains to visit Chiricahua National Monument. I was very excited and expected to see many monuments to Cochise and his people, but soon went away baffled, confused and upset as hardly a word or artifact was to be found about the Apaches who had been there for centuries. I left visibly shaken and my friend pointing this out indicated to me that Cochise indeed had replaced my biological father. I vowed at that moment to honor his memory by writing a biography of him and his times.

Cochise and His Times : Book Outline

COCHISE: TIME ,PEOPLE, AND CULTURE

BOOK OUTLINE

Chapter I: The Landscape and Geography: Desert, Mesas, Mountains, Flora/ Fauna with emphasis on desert plants, herbs, animals as well as discussion of paleo-Indians, Mongollan, Anasazi and Pueblo people.

Chapter II: Arrival of Apaches: Creation Story, Cultural values, social organization, philosophy of governance, leadership, bands /divisions, the Chiricahuas, warrior culture.

Chapter III: Spanish/ Mexican Presence: Coronado and 7 Cities of Gold,  horse/cattle/sheep, Santa Fe/New Spain, Padres and Missions, Apaches relationships with Spanish/Mexican, a Raiding economy.

Chapter IV:  Cochise: Child hood/adolescences, becoming  a leader, royal bloodline, death of the Father,  Mangas Coloradas, Mexican - American War, shifting boundaries, miners/prospectors, Apacheria under threat, dealing with White Eye Americans, Butterfield Line.

Chapter V: War( 1861-65): Bascom Affair, avenging family,  Fort Bowie, Battle of Apache Pass, Civil War, new war strategies, death of Mangas Coloradas, apparent victory over Americans, White flight from Apacheria, consolidating victories, emergence of Victoria, Juh, Lozen and Geronimo.

Chapter VI: War of Attrition (1865-72): The American return, new Washington program: reservations, acculturalization, ethnic cleansing, series of Forts, life becomes hard, war of attrition, Cochise on the run, pitting bands against bands, the use of Apache scouts, Crook, “the Grey Fox”, no way out.

Chapter VII. Looking for peace, mysterious Tom Jeffords, crossing cultures, “blood brothers”;  Grant administration, 1872 Camp Grant Massacre, Cushing and Juh, Coyler’s Peace Initiative, General Otis Howard, Cochise agrees to meet, creation of Chiricahuas reservation, Jeffords' agent.

Chapter VIII.  Cochise death, 1874, Taza emerges, Jeffords' fights to preserve the reservation, dissolved and Chiricahuas forced to settle at San Carlos, Geronimo and  others unhappy including Victoria who wished to live in his beloved Ojo Caliente lands, the death of Taza.

Chapter IX. The Victorio/GeronimoWars, 1878-1886, highlights, Victoria’s death by Mexican soldiers @ Tres Castillos (1880), Crook /Geronimo, Geronimo’s 1886 surrender ,Chiricahuas sent to Florida , Chiricahuas were permitted to return to Oklahoma in 1894 and then to Mescalero Reservation in 1909, but not to their original Arizona /New Mexico home land.

Chapter X. Historical analysis, today’s Apaches, future prospects/implications for America, return to the land of Cochise.

Apache Healers/Witches

 Witches and healers (Medicine Doctors) either men or women were those who manifested early a talent for communicating with the spirit world. "Some say that the earth talks to them, some say that the wind has life, some say the mountain." Doctors /witches usually received a vision or spiritual guidance instructing them in sacred songs and prayers for healing, for abundance, for blessing, to locate lost people, to control the weather, to weaken an enemy or to curse a person. Some "Doctors" were taken to a sacred mountain or cave where they were initiated into ceremony and received instructions about what and how to do it! During the healing there is a constant interplay between the Power and the practitioner. Some say that Cochise's death in 1874 was the machination of a witch! Geronimo as a war leader's had the “medicine” to extend the darkness, to vanish into air, to raise a dust storm. Lozen, Victoria’s sister was a great psychic warrior who had the ability to see into the future by experiencing after prayer an itch in her palm allowing her to locate/predicting enemy movements. As she stated: "I see as one from a height sees in every direction." Unfortunately for Victorio, her brother, she was not there when he ran into the Mexicans in October, 1880 at Tres Castillos. (Cf, Debo, Geronimo, pp.142-45; Stockel, Women of the Apache Nation, pp.29-51.)

               Doctoring/healing ceremony often was a four day ritual beginning with a Sweat in which the healer dressed in full regalia including wearing of turquoise, abalone shells, red coral, eagle feathers, pollen, black flint blades, white shell, and obsidian. Other items including tobacco, snakeweed and grama grass were part of their medicine bag. The Medicine person was accompanied by two assistants, a drummer and a rattler. The drumming sound in cadence with the rattle had the effect of calming the mind, releasing fear and was a reminder of the centrality of the heart in all healing. The drum cadence simulated the heart beat and the drum itself was consider spiritually alive return one to the spiritual
center of one's existence. The Doctor would sing: "I want nothing to harm us." "I want him to live" "Your Power must go into the life of this poor man." As the ceremony unfolded the doctor sprinkled the sick with pollen (symbol of life), red ocher, iron ore (strength), and white clay (purification). He simultaneously sang to the Four Directions, Colors (Red, White, Black and Yellow) and stones. Tea was used to heal and its plant burnt and smoke fanned over the patient with a sacred eagle feather. Cf, Opler, An Apache Life-Way pp.186-315, Film, “The Missing”)

Apache Views on Death

Apaches never recklessly threw away their lives or took unnecessary risk unless it was absolutely critical to stay alive to protect women, children and elderly from their enemies. Apaches had a deep aversion toward death and emphasized the importance of life, of survival, of longevity. When a person died like Cochise his name was never to be mentioned again as it would confuse the deceased spirit about the plane he/she was  on. In the “Spirit World” it was anticipated that relationships would be resumed there. This is the thought that Cochise left Tom Jeffords with, as he neared death in 1874, when Cochise insisted to the skeptical Jeffords that they would meet again, “up there”. In fact, Apaches believed that in the “Happy Place” their enjoyment would be magnified. Preparation for burial involved putting the body into a sitting position so that its ghost could not look back on the village accompanied by favorite possessions or weapons of deceased. Legend has it that Cochise was buried with his silver engraved shotgun and favorite horse in a hidden deep cave located in the Dragoon Mountains. His wives cut their hair, wailed, burned the wickiup with all his possessions, and covered their face with charcoal protecting themselves from dark spirits of night! As the burial concluded the Medicine Doctor would declare; “Goodbye, it’s finished. We shall speak his name no more.” The Apaches believed that to get to the “Happy Place” you had to go through a rite of passage protected by animal gatekeepers, two serpents, grizzlies and mountain lions, and upon successfully passing these challenges you found yourself in a beautiful green valley where there was plenty of game and the People. According to Jeffords, Cochise given his “Greatness” was mourned with deep lamentation for four days by his people. Paradoxically the Apache custom of burning all physical signs and never mentioning the Name of the decease again means that it becomes difficult to determine genealogy or relationship. For instance, Cochise’s mother’s name remains unknown. She was probably treacherously killed along with her husabnd Pisago Cabezon at Galeana in Sonora in 1845. There still remains uncertainty however about who Cochise's father was although circumstance suggests Pisago Cabezon.(Cf Aleshire, p.17 & 61-63.)

Apache Coyote Stories/ Moral Wisdoms

Story Telling/Wisdom: A primary way by which Apache values were passed on and sustained was through stories told to the “People” most often during winter months of “Ghost Face”. These stories including “Coyote Tales” provided deep spiritual/psychological insights into the strengths/ foibles of the “People”, about how to live in harmony with nature, practical tips in survival, fighting, living in community and in healing. Basic “Coyote Tale” themes revolved around death, sex, family, animals, truthfulness, self-reliance, and perils of arrogance/pride. For instance, one story has it that Coyote decide to test whether or not a “Rock People” could run by defecating on it and to Coyote’s surprise it pursued; no matter how fast Coyote ran or maneuvered it was unable to get away and finally realized it  better go back and apologized by cleaning up its mess. The moral here was that reverence/interdependence for all things in nature had to be maintained! (Cf, Opler, “Myths & Tales”, p.35.) Apaches too later became increasingly suspicious of the hidden costs of Pindah modernity with its emphasis on material physical comfort/drugs including whiskey/tequila, cotton/kettles, and guns/knives, realizing that these trade items undermined their native lifestyle making them increasingly dependent on Pindah for material survival leading ultimately to loss of their spiritual identity through Christian missionary efforts and to final humiliation of reservations/Indian schools. Later “Coyote Tales” warned them of the implicit dangers of cultural borrowing/imitations. In one such story involving a Snake (Pindah) and Eagle (Apaches), the former convinces the Eagle that it can no longer sustain itself in traditional way as hunters /gatherers but must adopt new ways of farming/ ranching or perish. Cochise intuitively fought against cultural interaction as it breed dependence and fear by limiting White contact and insisting that his Band remain self-dependent. Cochise knew that to imitate the Pindah would undermine Apache identity, a loss of freedom/soul, which led him, along with Mangas Coloradas, Victoria, Nana, Geronimo and others to fight a remarkable twenty-five year war against the Pindah. Cochise‘s attitude captured best by Mescalero leader Cadette who remarked to Cremony: “You are slaves from the time you begin to talk until you die; but we are free as air. We never work, but the Mexican and others work for us. Our wants are few and easily supplied. The river, the wood, the plain yield all that we require, and we will not be slaves: nor will we send our children to your schools, where they only learn to become like yourselves.”(Cf, Cremony, “Life Among Apaches”, p 215.)

Sacredness of the Land

For the Chiricahuas the land was “Sacred” and “Dark”, it embodied subtle energies/wisdom, good/bad, for the People to learn from. The Dragoons/Chiricahuas protected the “People” from their enemies allowing them to see days in advance settlers or soldiers crossing Apacheria, protected them from bullets, offered acorns in winter, mescal in spring, saguaro fruit in the summer. Every rock, crevice, tree, stream held a story that was invaluable to survival and was a living testimony or school to learn from.  The Apaches believed in Mountain People or Spirits called “Gaan”. “Gaans” were sent to earth by “Life Giver” to teach the Apaches how to live peacefully and were healing spirits. Men in ceremonies wore masks like Hopi Kachinas to take on their power. Rituals involved song, prayer and dance. The dancers invoked Gaan power for healing; prophecy and ceremony. Any disturbance of the land could anger the Gaan leading to earthquakes and terrible lighting storms. Cochise gained inspiration and strength from the landscape. Nature/places always called him, providing insights and direction. Yet the land held bitter memories and energy. Apache Pass was one of the worse places for him as it was there that his brother Coyuntura under a white flag was hanged. The Chiricahuas believed that one could capture the deep wisdom of the “Rock People”   by sitting in silence contemplating the pre-historical figurines that dotted the Chiricahua Mountain landscape. These Rock formations existed before time and eerily held a deep truth about mysteries of life. They precipitated deep altered states of consciousness and they spoke to the listener. Cochise being contemplated by nature often sought their knowledge and direction. “Rock People”, too, played a significant role in Sweat Lodge Ceremony, which was another favorite of Cochise, as its purification/healing rites brought clarity and insight. “The Rock People” “hot” were brought in and placed in a pit and then sprinkle with sage and water which allowed their healing properties to penetrate the circle of two legged who participated accompanied by song and smoke. The ceremony ended with bathing in a mountain creek or stream and drinking clear water.  Cochise often refreshed/renewed himself in spiritual ceremony of "Sweats” as they restored his energy and allowed him to make better decisions for the safety of his people.

Apache Time Sense

 Time for the Apaches was cyclical, with peaks and valleys, and followed the seasonal movement of spring, summer, fall and winter, as embodied in Medicine Wheel. The Medicine Wheel along with number 7 captured the totality of existence including 4 directions, Ussen and the “People.”The number 4 was especially sacred as it implied basic life pattern of birth/death/rebirth as well as capturing the 4 cardinal directions, east, south, west /north; 4 colors, black, yellow, red, white; 4 seasons, spring, summer, fall, winter; 4 elements, earth, air, fire, water); 4 ages, infancy, adolescence, adulthood, elderly; 4 conditions of man , physical, emotional, mental , spiritual. The Medicine Wheel was called upon in hunting, healing, locating things, invoking rain, planting/harvesting and was helpful in resolving clan/band relationships. Above all else the Medicine Wheel captured the underlying natural unity/interconnectedness within the web of the Universe as it provided clues to re-connecting with Ussen by discovering/following the moral principles of the “Red/Spiritual Path” by which Apaches learn to master darker impulses of each direction or season by living in the “heart” freeing them from fear of bringing dishonor to their family. Cochise always emphasized the importance of truth, of speaking from the heart and prided himself in never lying. (Cf, Cochise speech, “I am Alone”).Drinking tiswin excessively, an Apache beer made from corn ,and especially much stronger Pindah whiskey, was very destructive to the Apache lifestyle leading many away from the “Red Road” and to family quarrels, destructive fights, death and loss of face.

Child of Water

    Today I focused on  the hero, Child of Water,who had to rid the world of mammoth animals, Eagle, Buffalo and Antelope, and who dominated the Earth and made it impossible for the “People” to thrive. Child of Water despite his age will ultimately free the world of these monsters through ingenuity, discipline, courage and the help of animal people: gopher and lizard. Gopher teaches Child of Water to burrow underground and lizard concealment. From these Cochise and others Apaches learned that the landscape/camouflage/deception can overcome numbers and technology. Cleverness is superior to brawn as is humility over pride and that planning; having at least 4 rendezvous points is a better way to protect the band from sudden attack than only one or two. Later however “Child of Water” and “Killer of Enemies” split into adversaries: “Child of Water” would be creative force for Apaches and “Killer of Enemies” for the Pindah. The Apaches chose bow /arrows and were to live close to land “on yucca fruit, pinon nuts, and all other wild plants”, whereas whites the gun and to live on corn and wealth. This cultural divide symbolize by bow/rifle represented a significant cultural/paradigm clash between Apache/Pindah about man’s life and relationship to Nature that would deepen the conflict between them.

April 6 White Painted Lady

           Apache Creation Tale/White Painted Lady: According to the Apaches the “Giver of Life” Ussen warned  White Painted Lady of a coming deluge and directed her to take refuge in  a floating abalone shell which came to rest after the waters receded at White Sands , New Mexico, birth place of the Apache people. There she gave birth to 2 boys: “Child of Water” and “Killer of Enemies”. White Painted Lady is viewed by Morris Edward Opler (Myths and Tales of the Chiricahua Apache Indians, Univ. Nebraska Press, 1994) as a cultural archetype of life, fertility and renewal. She taught the people how to rid the world of evil represented by giant, eagle, buffalo and antelope by “making” for her children, especially Child of Water, a bow and arrows which he used to slay the Giant. Upon slaying these “Dragons” then the world came into existence with people, animals, and flora. Later however “Child of Water” and “Killer of Enemies” broke into different people: “Child of Water” would be creative force for Apaches and “Killer of Enemies” for the Pindah. The Apaches were to live “on yucca fruit, pinon nuts, and all other wild plants”, whereas whites on corn and wealth, which later represented a significant cultural/paradigm divide between tribal and modern thinking about life and man’s relationship to Nature.

Origins of Apache/Migration./Destination/Bands

 Over the last two weeks I have been writing about the Canadian origins of the Apaches, tracing their migration to  the southwest, and discussing how they  received the name "Apache", Pueblo word for "stranger" or"enemy", whereas they saw themselves simply as "Tinneh" or the "People". They finally settled in southwest Texas, New Mexico and Arizona and because of geography they established different Bands. The Chiricahuas were a western group consisting of 4 Bands one of which was led by Cochise. The name Chiricahua means "Mountains of Wild Turkeys" as they were essentially people of the Mountains. Cochise's territory, southeastern Arizona, encompassed about 7000 square miles centering on Dragoon/Chiricahua Mountains which provided him great protection and were his respective Strong holds. The Chiricahuas/Dragoon Mountains were the meeting point of three major eco systems: Rockies,Sierra Madres and Sonorian Desert. Landscape was very important to Apaches.Legend has it that all Apaches came from Whitesands New Mexico where White Painted Lady was miraculously saved in Abalone Shell after  a great flood.

Trapped At Fronteras/ July 1858

Today I discussed Cochise's defeat at Fronteras in 1858 during Moon of Ripening. Though cautious, Cochise nevertheless took a calculated gamble only to have it blow up in his face leading to the death of several Chokonen warrior leaders as well as the capture of women and children who ended up in slavery. Cochise, the cunning leader that he was, although having a retreat plan nevertheless misjudged the situation as Sonora Officials were redoubling their efforts against the Apaches and used the ruse of peace and  mescal to trap his Band.  Mescal/alcohol were a form of chemical warfare used by the Mexicans to weaken the drunken Apaches in order to rob, slay ot kill them. The Apaches had a genetic weakness to alcohol and alcohol became part of the war between the two peoples as was scalp taking and bounty hunting which had been initiated by the Mexicans.

Cochise Sweat Reflection With Coyuntura

Today I narrated a meeting that Cochise and his brother Coyuntura had in a Sweat to reflect on Chokonen's relations with Mexico , especially Sonora. In it  details of Sweat Ceremony are expressed revolving around 4 elements of earth, air, fire and water. Cochise inside the Sweat seeks insight/guidance from the Spirit World, the Grandfathers, about how to handle Mexicans and Americans. The successful Raid to avenge the death of Mangas sons has consequences which can jeopardize  Apache - Mexican trade relations which are vital to his people's well being. He struggles over how to  reconcile with state of Sonora which boarders his lands and decides to return to Fronteras only to fall into a trap which brings about serious losses but will catapult him to undisputed leader of his Band.

Cochise/Mangas/Mexicans

Today I wrote an account that touches on Cochise's relationships with Mexicans. Historically they were enemies but practically the Apaches needed them for trade, commerce, especially horses/guns and population as they often captured young Mexicans and brought them back to camps to raise them as Apache. This relationship with Mexican states of Sonora and Chihuahua became even more critical after Apacheria passed to United States in 1853 with Gadsden Purchase. What triggers the matter is that Cochise joins Mangas to avenge death of his two sons in1858.

Cochise/Mangas Meeting Regarding Bartlett Expedition

Greetings:

  Today I wrote a fictional account of a meeting between Mangas and Cochise regarding Mangas encounter with John Bartlett's expedition in 1851 into Apacheria to finalize boundary between US and Mexico. The Apaches, whose territory the Gadsen Purchase impacted, were of course not even included in the negotiations! Unfortunately from Mangas point of view the meeting went poorly  as he strongly communicated to Cochise and his warriors in Cochise's stronghold. "Pindah never really understood Apache culture" and even worse rebuffed Mangas' offer of support against the Mexicans "on the grounds that America was at peace with Mexico!"

One more thought for the day

This is a life-long project that began when I was twelve years of age, a period of time in which Cochise entered into my heart and became my spiritual father, filling the vacuum left by my biological father. Since then I have always wanted to bring the humanity of Cochise, the person, to full view. For I see him as an exemplar of qualities that modern people badly need.

The story begins

I am in the midst of writing a biography of Cochise, who I consider to be my spiritual grandfather. I will share more about my personal journey and my connection to Cochise as this blog unfolds. I have started this blog in an effort to engage others in conversation about Cochise, to gain deeper insight about him and his times, and to share the materials that I uncover along the way. I invite you to join me in this venture and to share your knowledge and experiences about Cochise, his times, and the Chiricahuas, his band of Apaches.

Here are some of my research questions, which I will explore through this blog.

1. What accounts for Cochise’s enduring mythology?
2. Who was Cochise's father? Somewhat unclear.
3. Birth dates of Cochise also unclear.
4. What was the nature of Cochise’s relationship with Magnas Coloradas?
5. How did the 1854 Gadsden Purchase from Mexico impact Cochise’s relationship with Mexicans and Americans?
6. What was Cochise’s initial strategy and response to growing American presence in Apacheria?
7. What was his relations to Butterfield Stage Line?
8. What were the immediate and long term consequences of the Bascom affair in 1861 known by Apaches as “Cut the Tent” affair?
9. How did the Battle of Apache Pass in 1862 along with the Civil War change Apache military strategies/tactics?
10. How did the Apache Cochise War change from 1865-72?
11. Who is the “Mysterious” Tom Jeffords and how was he able to gain Cochise’s trust thereby bridging Two Worlds? Has he left any writen documents of his relationship?
12. What historical factors brought General Howard, Cochise, and Jeffords to peace in 1872?
13. Why was the premature death of Cochise in 1874 tragic for the Chiricahuas and how did it lead to the Geronimo Wars, 1875-85?
14. Why the continued Cochise Mythos!